What I Have Learned About Research At An Introductory Level

Introduction A case study is defined as â€Å"a report of case materials obtained while working with an individual, a group, a community, or an organization. Case Studies illustrate a problem; indicate a means for solving a problem; and/or shed light on needed research, clinical applications, or theoretical materials† (APA, 2010, p. 11). The goal of this paper is for me to conduct a case study on myself and explain what I have learned about research at an introductory level, and how I evaluate or critique it from a biblical, Christian perspective. The Subject: Jasmine The subject of this case study is a 19-year-old student, named Jasmine. Prior to taking this class, Jasmine never used the APA style in any of her previous classes. She did not know what to expect from taking this class, but she was very excited to learn. At the beginning of the course, Jasmine was overwhelmed with the amount of work she saw on the syllabus. She did not know how to conduct research, let alone conduct a case study. She began each week reading the assigned materials and slowly became familiar with the information and began learning a lot about research. As time went on, and God gave her strength, Jasmine became confident in what she was learning and learned a lot of information that she will continue to use in future classes. Learning About Research Through this course, the student has learned a lot about the research method as well as the APA style. Research is defined as â€Å"studiousShow MoreRelatedWhat I Have Learned About Research At An Introductory Level1776 Words   |  8 PagesThroughout this course I have learned many things about research at an introductory level. Research is a critical part of all of our lives in many ways. God blesses each of us with a degree of common sense and we all learn from observing others even as babies, we learned behaviors and skills by observing our parents. Walking through experiences throughout life teach us a lot we need to know as well but sometimes we have to take a better approach when we need to learn about certain things. ManyRead MoreWhat I Learned About Research At An Introductory Level? Essay736 Words   |  3 PagesMethods in Behavioral Research, the author clearly defines the case study as â€Å"an observational method that provides a descripti on of an individual† (Bates, 2012, pg. 121). The objectives of this course fitting to our syllabus were to familiarize us to the practices of psychological research, to advance our understanding of how research is completed and the methods used to do it, and to give us the capability to communicate knowledgeably about the ideas following the research procedure. 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Taking off my life vest and diving into this research course has been very rewarding for me. I have learned so much in such a short amount of time. It has open my eyes up to a variety of ways I can start and conduct my research. Research is not soRead MoreMy Day As An Emergency Room Volunteer852 Words   |  4 Pagesbegins to regain consciousness. Later, after the excitement had passed, I learned what brought him here. He is diabetic and couldn’t afford to properly manage his condition. He had fainted due to hypoglycemia and hit his head. He had almost lost his life because of the unfortunate financial realities of modern healthcare. In that moment, I came to appreciate the very real cost of disease and the incredible role physicians have in ameliorating it. This formative experience was the beginning of my pathRead MoreWhat I Learned About Research At An Introductory Level As A Case Study1069 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Within the eight weeks of this course, we learned a lot about psychological research. This course provided an understanding of how research is completed. This course also gave an understanding of what methods to utilize based on that particular research that is being conducted. In this paper I will discuss exactly what I learned about research at an introductory level as a case study. In the field of mental health, professionals must be constantly looking for ways to help their patientsRead MoreMy Future Career As A Law Enforcement Officer1821 Words   |  8 PagesOver the last seven weeks students have dove into the study of research, receiving an introduction to a deeper level of conducting and reinterpreting different research methods. Questions such as, â€Å"What have you learned about research at an introductory level?† and â€Å"How do you evaluate or critique this from a biblical, Christian perspective?† will be answered in the personal case study that will be conducted on myself. The fascinating thing about research is that every individual conducts it in aRead MoreAnalysis of the Class Orientation to Psychology Essay1371 Words   |  6 Pagespart of my college experience thus far. Although I came into college confidently declared as a psychology major, I didn’t really know what this meant or entailed prior to taking this course. This course taught me valuable information about myself, about the field of psychology, and about how I can mold those two together. All that I’ve learned this semester in Orientation to Psychology helped me to form a coherent and positive understanding of who I am and how this identity fits into the world ofRead MoreFacilitation of Learning1390 Words   |  6 Pagessupport to students in practice, this is where students apply their knowledge, learn key skills and achieve the required competence for registration. Mentors are accountable to the NMC for their decision that students are fit for practice and that they have necessary knowledge, skills and competence to take on the role of registered nurse or midwife (NMC, 2008a). According to Morton Palmer (2000), mentors should display positive role modelling behaviours on duty. This gives the student the opportunityRead MoreHow I Have Learned As A Student Essay1426 Words   |  6 Pagesthe various methods I have learned as a student in the introduction to research course. The skills and methods taught in this class have been presented through course textbooks, online articles and videos, and interaction with the professor. Other opportunities for learning the research skills and methods occurred through writing of papers, testing knowledge through quizzes, and through interactive discussion board threads and posts. In addition to acknowledging these learned methods, this paper

Reforming the US corporate tax structure by switching to a territorial

Essays on Reforming the US corporate tax structure by switching to a territorial system Essay Reforming the US corporate tax structure by switching to a territorial system The tax system that is applied by USA to tax its corporate sector has an overall effect on the US economy, since it determines the total revenues that can collected from taxes, and the consequent annual federal budget capacity (Mullins, 7). Currently, the USA corporate tax system is orientated towards a more foreign tax credit system, also known as a worldwide tax system, which taxes the USA corporate both for the incomes earned domestically and also the revenues earned abroad (United States Congress, 186). This form of taxation has some limitations in that it opens avenues for the multinational corporations to apply accounting and other legal avenues of tax avoidance to reduce the taxes that they pay domestically to the USA government. The corporate apply the tax credit system that allows the MNCs to reduce their tax burden by the amount they pay in foreign taxes (Taxfoundation.org, n.p.). Therefore, switching to a territorial system structure will be more advantageous to the USA government tax collection system. This is because, a territorial system will replace the taxation of the incomes of the USA corporations from everywhere in the world, into the taxation of the corporations that are only operating within the USA (Drabkin, Serwin and Tyson, 12). While this might seem like a disadvantage since it will reduce the incomes that are generated from the foreign-based companies, it is highly advantageous because it will ensure that the multinational corporations that are incorporated domestically within the USA do not deduct the expenses consumed by their franchises, branches or subsidiaries overseas (Taxfoundation.org, n.p.). This will prove to be a great tax advantage for the USA, since the multinational corporations incorporated domestically will be forced to have to pay taxes on all the revenues generated annually, without the existing loopholes of tax reductions off ered by deducting the expenses of the subsidiaries operating abroad. Multinational companies incorporated in the USA are able to reduce their domestically paid taxes through shifting the domestically earned incomes into the low tax foreign countries where their subsidiaries operate, through allocating the domestic incomes into the interest expenses and other fixed costs incurred by the subsidiaries (Taxfoundation.org, n.p.). Additionally, the domestic incomes earned by the USA multinationals is reduced through having the multinationals lower the taxes payable through inflating the inter-organizational prices for their transactions with their overseas subsidiaries (Mullins, 22). Therefore, through switching to a territorial system tax structure, the USA will be able to seal all these loopholes that the multinationals have been using to repatriate their domestically earned incomes to foreign jurisdictions where the taxation is much lower. This will in turn ensure that all, the domestically earned incomes by the multinationals will be subjected to taxati on, thus increasing the tax base and the total tax revenues collected from the USA multinationals, when compared to the current foreign tax credit system (Drabkin, Serwin and Tyson, 27). Additionally, the territorial tax system structure will be able to tap on the incomes covered by the financial assets held by the foreign-based subsidiaries of the multinationals, which in turn means that the USA tax base will be able to tax the whole domestic income of the multinational based at home, while also taxing on the financial asset incomes of the foreign subsidiaries, thus increasing the tax revenue collected from the corporate taxes (United States Congress, 187). In addition, the adoption of the territorial system will be advantageous, since it will enable the multinationals to stop repatriating their domestically earned incomes to the foreign jurisdictions where the taxation is lower, making it possible for the companies to expand and also create more employment opportunities for the USA population (Drabkin, Serwin and Tyson, 35). However, while the adoption of the territorial system would be advantageous to the USA tax revenue collection capacity, it could be somehow eroding the benefits of all the foreign incomes that are generated from the foreign jurisdictions. In this respect, the strategy of switching to a territorial system that would effectively reform the current structure of taxation in the USA is the application of the 95:5 rule. Under this strategy, the territorial system will act as a hybrid of both the current worldwide system of taxation and also a territorial system, where the multinationals are exempted from paying 95% of the taxes on revenues they generate from abroad, and only required to pay 5% taxes on such revenues (Drabkin, Serwin and Tyson, 37). This system will prove to be beneficial, since it will ensure that the foreign-tax base capacity is not lost entirely, while ensuring that the domestically earned incomes will be subjected to taxation entirely (United States Congress, 186). The effect would be a very effective hybrid taxation system that is orientated more towards the territorial system structure. Switching to a territorial system improves capital import neutrality (CIN), through ensuring that the multinationals incorporated in the USA will only pay taxes for the income they earn domestically (Mullins, 47). This will then mean that they are not burdened by more taxes like they are currently under the worldwide tax structure, where they pay tax on incomes generated domestically and also incomes generated internationally to the USA government (Taxfoundation.org). This will ensure that the tax burden for the USA corporate is lowered, and they are equally competitive to the corporations incorporated in other jurisdictions (United States Congress, 187). The notable change that will be required to implement the switching into a territorial system is to change the laws of computation of the deductible expenses, such that the deductions that were previously made in terms of expenses for the overseas subsidiaries would no longer be deducted from the taxable income of the USA corporatio ns income that is earned domestically (Mullins, 21). Works Cited Drabkin, Eric, Serwin, Kenneth and Tyson, Laura. Implications of a Switch to a Territorial Tax System in the United States: A Critical Comparison to the Current System. Berkeley Research Group, 2013. 1-41. Print. Mullins, Peter J. Moving to Territoriality? Implications for the United States and the Rest of the world. International Monetary Fund, 2006. 5-51. Print. Taxfoundation.org. A New Way to Tax Corporations: Switching to a Territorial System. Tax Foundation, January 09, 2012. Web. December 11, 2014. http://taxfoundation.org/article/new-way-tax-corporations-switching-territorial-system United States Congress. Options to Improve Tax Compliance and Reform Tax Expenditures. Washington, D.C: U.S. G.P.O, 2005. 186-190. Print.

Management of Organisations Concept of Work Motivation

Question: Discuss about the case study Management of Organisations for Concept of Work Motivation. Answer: Introduction The report will discuss in detail about the concept of work motivation. Motivation at work is something that develops from within an individual at the same time there are things that is completely beyond the individual form (Pinder, 2014). In order to understand, what motivates one at work is a study in itself and a lot of psychology is involved in this. What motivates me at work? I am motivated by many things at work and the primary thing which motivates me is doing the meaningful and concrete work for the organisation and recognising for my work (Danish and Usman, 2010). Both these elements are main factors for making me successful at work which become important motivators (Pinder, 2014). Another important motivator at work is the pay and constant appraisal in the pay. Singapore Airlines also comes with lots of perks like good lifestyle and travelling for free travelling all over the world and at the same time getting paid for traveling (Danish and Usman, 2010). The company is the five star airlines in the world. The company gave us the opportunity to develop a leading edge for the company by constantly improving and evolving in the organisation (Pinder, 2014). Factors that demotivates at work There are number of factors as well that demotivate an employee in Airlines industry. Following are the factors that demotivate me: Travelling to number of countries can be a strenuous job and this is why, the GMT difference leads to major jetlag and there is no time to recover it as we constantly moves into new cities (Chen et al, 2011). Constant travelling keeps us away from home for a very long period of time. This is why, I constantly miss home. Travelling and constant jetlag also create a lot health issues like sleeping disorder (Kultalahti and Liisa Viitala, 2014). Being on flight all the means that one has to be very careful and alert with the customer. This makes my job very demanding and I am in constant pressure to perform (Chen et al, 2011). Lack of vision for career is another factor that can lead to demotivation. Money is one part for motivation and there are number of people including me who are also looking for clear career goals and it can be a useful process to set clear, long-term objectives for employees (Chen et al, 2011). Job insecurity also impacts employees motivation. Every employee wants to be in a place where they can feel secure (Kultalahti and Liisa Viitala, 2014). Conclusion Motivation in employees and productivity can increase and at the same time improve the work environment. This increases number of factors that can affect the performance. These elements are actually quite simple to understand, easy to calculate and at the same time also add a lot of value in organisation (Kultalahti and Liisa Viitala, 2014). The report has discussed in detail about the factors that motivates and demotivates me at work. These are the some crucial and key things that can contribute in the work that works as major motivators and once people identify them; people get the power to completely revamp the work and the factors that keep them moving (Kultalahti and Liisa Viitala, 2014). Reference Pinder, C.C., 2014.Work motivation in organizational behavior. Psychology Press. Danish, R.Q. and Usman, A., 2010. Impact of reward and recognition on job satisfaction and motivation: An empirical study from Pakistan.International journal of business and management,5(2), p.159. Chen, G., Sharma, P.N., Edinger, S.K., Shapiro, D.L. and Farh, J.L., 2011. Motivating and demotivating forces in teams: cross-level influences of empowering leadership and relationship conflict.Journal of Applied Psychology,96(3), p.541. Kultalahti, S. and Liisa Viitala, R., 2014. Sufficient challenges and a weekend aheadGeneration Y describing motivation at work.Journal of Organizational Change Management,27(4), pp.569-582.

Veet Case Study free essay sample

Opportunity is a matter of perception. It is not for every eye to spot opportunity. Only a perceptive eye can achieve this feat. Hair removal market in India has remained quiet and sleepy for very long until RB (Reckitt Benkiser) forayed into it with its Veet brand in 2006. And in a short span of seven years of its launch the brand transformed the category from a meager Rs 50 crores to Rs 350 crores creating a seven fold jump. The brand went on to become not only market leader but a dominant player leaving the incumbent brands far behind. It certainly is a remarkable marketing feat. But success is intoxicating. Success fuels desire to succeed further. For Rajneesh, marketing manager (personal care business) and Sandeep, brand manager (Veet), this certainly has been a milestone reached, but they both seem to concur that this market leadership of Veet is not an end itself rather a beginning. We will write a custom essay sample on Veet Case Study or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Though Veet’s claim to fame has been hair removal or hair depilation, this is not the only knitting to which the brand must stick for ever. How far can the brand go if it sticks to its territory of hair removal, certainly not very far? Both Rajneesh and Sandeep intuitively feel that Veet masks huge potential to become a mega brand simply if it manages to transcend its current product domain. Sticking to knitting is fine but it is also limiting. But a brand like Veet can grow leaps and bound if the brand finds new knitting. Amidst this conviction, there is confusion as to what course the brand should take and how. The Company Reckitt Benckiser is a multinational corporation with presence in over 180 countries. Its origin dates back to 1823 when Johann A. Benckiser laid its foundation. With over 150 years of existence the company is founded on British and German heritage. The company has distinguished itself for bringing innovative solution to meet customer needs. Reckitt Benckiser (RB) came into existence after the merger of Reckitt Colman and Benckiser in 1999. This merger created world’s top house hold cleaning solution provider. RB operates in a number of high growth categories considered to be at the core of its business strategy: fabric care, surface care, dishwashing, home care, health care, personal care and food. Four of the top amongst these in terms of revenue are fabric care (22%), health care (26%), personal care (20%) and surface care (17%). The company has operations in 60 countries, sales in 180 countries and has had net revenues in excess of 6. 5 billion pounds last year. 4 Reckitt Benckiser India Ltd (RBIL) is a fully owned subsidiary of Reckitt Benckiser Plc. The year 2010 saw the company achieve very strong financial results despite not so positive economic conditions globally. Net revenues grew by 9% to ? 8,453m and adjusted operating profit was up by 18% to ? 2,231m. This performance, following a number of years of strong growth, is a testament to the global strength of the Companys strategy and execution, and the quality of its employees and their leadership. RB has strategically built an impressive brand portfolio in the above categories. Most of its brands consistently figure on the shopping list of customers worldwide. RB’s brands stand apart from others by combining an irresistible combination of innovation and value for money. A total of nineteen power brands drive company performance including Airwick, Dettol, Clearasil, Disprin, Harpic, Lisol, Mortein, Vanish, and Cherry Blossom. Most of these brands enjoy top positions in their respective markets. These are either number one or two in their categories. For instance, Lisol is a number one disinfectant brand in the US. The other brands that lead the category include Dettol (antiseptic), Vanish (fabric stain remover), Harpic (toilet cleaner) and Cherry Blossom (shoe polish). For RB India like other countries where it operates, most of its brands are top performers in their respective categories. A good innovative product when combined with ingenious marketing methods creates a mix par excellence. For instance a great marketing feat is achieved when an antiseptic brand like Dettol was completely transformed into to a health brand. Dettol subtly and strategically moved away from antiseptic yet leveraging its core benefit to become a brand embracing new product categories like toilet soap, shaving cream, talc, plaster and hand wash. Company’s toilet bowl cleaner brand Harpic enjoys market leadership with a share close to 75%; glass surface cleaner Colin tops the category with about 88% share and mosquito repellent brand Mortein dominates the market with about 20% share. One of its recent launches, Vanish a fabric stain remover, went to create and dominate the fabric stain remover category. Most of these brands are either number 1 or number 2 in their respective categories in India The company’s products need a wide distribution set up in order to reach their target customers. Some of the products typically fall in the fast moving consumer categories which require servicing a wide market area. RBIL uses its common distribution channels for distribution of its products which enjoy wide and deep reach in Indian market. This is one of the important strengths of the company. The channel system of the company is managed by its well structured sales force which is accountable for ensuring supply and sales of company’s entire product portfolio of more than one hundred and fifty stock keeping units. Quick way to leadership Veet brand was launched in India in 2004 and within a very short span of time it went on to become the category leader. At the time of its launch the total category sales stood at Rs 50 crores. Seven years later in 2010, Veet became a Rs 350 crore brand registering a seven fold increase in seven years since the time of its launch. Like many of the other RB brands, Veet is the number one depilatory brand in the world. It reigns at the top of the heap in the hair removal 5 products category. Following the global footprints, in India too, Veet has emerged as the top most hair removal brand. Prior to the launch of Veet, hair removal market was in a state of dormancy. Only a few brands competed in this space. One of them has been the Anne French brand from Wyeth Consumer Healthcare. India. This brand has been present in India for over four decades and as a result of its long existence in the market it developed a close connection with hair removal. Being probably the first mover and having been present in the market for a long period, the brand was not aggressively promoted. Its communication, few and in between stressed on the ease with which hair could be removed. The brand simply promoted how the product could be used to remove hair conveniently. The advertising of the brand followed an illustrative or demonstrated approach to explaining the prospective customers as to how hair could be removed by simply applying Anne French cream on the body to get rid of unwanted hair. The central idea centered on the product functionality. A period of long presence in the market can both be a burden and an advantage for a brand. It can be interpreted as heritage and hence excellence which could be leveraged to build brand strength. At the same time long existence can also imply ‘old’, ‘obsolete’ and of ‘yesteryears’. It is in this context that a long standing brand requires a careful and tactful manoeuvre. Anne French’s reality was somewhat similar. It was a brand with time of its side but it was not contemporized as time passed by. The result was a brand which enjoyed high recall and recognition and continuous support of customers. Rajneesh, Marketing Manager (personal care) is joyous over the feat that Veet managed to achieve: We studied the category and found immense potential waiting to be exploited. There were few players, at top Anne French followed by others like Fem. Anne French was known nationally with high recall and recognition in the target segment but here was a brand which was stuck in a time capsule. The brand was entirely promoted on the plank of product functionality. It focused on the ease of hair removal. But the brand image was not modernized to meet evolving desires and aspirations of target customers. Time or its long existence in the industry had rendered it fuddy-duddy meant to be used by only older customer. It was like „my mom? s brand, not for me?. The writing on the wall seemed very clear. The category was shouting out loud for players to join and provide what children of a liberalized era wanted. Liberalization and its consequent impact on consumer economy and consumer psychology fueled the growth of segments closer in outlook with any developed market of the world. Sandeep, Brand Manager ( Veet) concurs with Rajneesh: 6 There has been a subtle shift from sustenance led consumption to pleasure seeking. People want excellence in product functionality, but this is only the starting point. Now customers are willing to pay more if the brand delivers something beyond product functions. If a brand can rise up in the value ladder and forges a connection, it would certainly be rewarded. Consumption Consumers are making a transition from sustenance to indulgence. We had a brand in our portfolio which led the depilation market world wide. And the Indian market seemed just right for its launch with only one issue that needed to be resolved and that was what approach the brand should take to take on the then existing players. Further examination of the category threw up other interesting insights. The products available in the hair removal category had not evolved with time and thus as a result these formulations were inferior to the ones marketed elsewhere. These were not improved over time. In a way these were primitive. This category suffered from lack of innovations. It was not just the product, even the marketing, especially communication did not convey any sense of excitement. The brands stuck on to the matter of fact reason centric copy, more like sponsored information. Ads showed how application of the product allowed easy hair removal. Relying too much on the ‘reason why’, communication failed to activate emotional triggers. This probably has been due to the fact that product like this is not openly talked about. Hair removal deals with private parts and to promote this aggressively could have violated the sense and sensibilities of people twenty thirty years back. But things had moved on, yey brands did not. Veet needed a strategy by which it could directly connect with its customer better and at the same could set itself apart from other brands in the category. Rajneesh explained how Veet carefully negotiated this challenge: We were particular about making our objective of achieving brand leadership through innovation both in product and branding. Veet is a world class product with a superior innovative formulation. So we scored better on this count. However communication was a challenge. Instead of focusing on product functionality, we brought what customers seek by using a product like this at the centre of our brand building. Our strategy was to develop further on from superior hair removal and make a transition to benefits and we chose beauty and the confidence that comes as a result as the rallying point in our communication. We got our brand endorsed by Katrina Kaif, one of the top actresses in Bollywood. Katrina? s endorsement allowed the brand to develop strong linkage with words like the „beauty? , „attractive? , „success? and „modern?. The ads showed how using Veet makes skin smooth and attractive. Katrina was shown as arresting the attention of the opposite sex after product usage and gesticulating „V? for victory at the audience. The brand communication found an instant connection with its target customers. It built resonance by relating with below the surface desires to be beautiful and ultimately be attractive to the opposite sex. Hair removal’s instrumentality in achieving higher order goal made the 7 brand an instant hit. It did not take much time for the brand to emerge as the category leader (see exhibit 1). Veet managed to put action into a sleepy category with the result that both the category and the brand expanded impressively (see exhibit 2) Market Reality Veet’s emergence as the dominant player in the hair removal category is certainly an appreciable achievement. But a perceptive glance at the market also reveals that there lies phenomenal opportunity to catapult the brand on to a higher valuation if the total market expands. First of all the category is not yet fully penetrated. Hair removal penetration is relatively lower in India as compared to other markets of the world. Only about a 68% percent of the people do depilation compared to above 80% in developed countries like the US, France and Spain. Hair removal penetration is even lesser for arms and legs at 40%. Secondly there is tremendous scope to multiply per capita consumption if customers who visit to salons for depilation could be shift to self depilation. The ‘salon only’ market is larger in North and West India. The usage of hair removal products is related to age. Its consumption goes down with age. The user of the category tends to be younger, single and educated. More than half (54%) of the women in the age group of 15-34 years use hair removal products and this percentage drops to 39% for 34-44 years age group. This goes down further to 18% for 45-65 years age group. The category consumption is also related to social grade. People in the higher social group are greater users of hair removal products. The Indian market is not much different when it comes to product usage concern. Hair removal product penetration/usage in terms of body parts is similar to that in other countries. The application areas for hair removal products are face, underarms, arms, stomach area, bikini line, upper legs and lower legs. The top three application areas in India are underarms, bikini area and face. This is in line with other markets. The Indian customer differs from the others with respect to usage on legs. Upper leg and lower leg usage in India is 11% and 24% which is much lower than 59% and 93% in other markets. Hair removal products are very intimate and personal. The path between Veet and customer is not straight and simple. It is full of myths and psychological barriers. Rajneesh explains: The industry offers hair removal solutions in the form of waxes, creams, and razors. And each of these products comes with their own perception baggage, some parts of which are positive and some negative. Razor is quick but difficult to use and does not give the smooth effect. Wax is cumbersome, messy, time consuming but is perceived to remove hair from the root, effect lasts longer and gives smooth effect. Creams are easy to use, gives smooth skin but people perceive that creams make skin dark and these are chemical formulations. This perceptual bias works against creams, hence against Veet. The usage of hair removal products can be broadly classified into two categories. Creams are used mainly for Underarms and bikini area. This is hygiene depilation. Arms and legs depilation is guided by the consideration of beauty. These are exposed part of the body and hair on them makes the person 8 unattractive. This is beauty depilation. Data on the product usage and application area is give in exhibit 4, a careful glance reveals that there is a scope for Veet to become bigger if it penetrates into application area where waxes and razors are used more. Sandeep, the brand manager for Veet articulated the challenge: The brand can become bigger if a shift in the product usage type is achieved. Wax is dominantly used for beauty depilation. There is an opportunity for a brand like Veet to expand by shifting people from wax to creams. Cream usage is higher for hygiene depilation. The usage of razor is also high for underarms and bikini area depilation. Hair removal for beauty involves bigger quantity usage hence this shift promises big opportunity. Waxing is predominantly a parlour activity. It is not simply the process of getting rid of unwanted hair for beauty purposes for which parlors are visited. Factually waxing is time consuming, messy, painful and a joint process. With all its negatives waxing looks like an inferior solution to customer needs compared to creams. Creams are neither messy nor painful. They save visit to parlour and are empowering. Therefore a shift from wax to cream is logical. Reading this opportunity a cold wax strip variant of Veet was launched. The anticipation was that the market would explode and target customer would lap it up. By this extension it was expected that Veet would steal a large market away from parlours. The ready to use cold strip version of Veet was met with only part success. Instead of getting into a permanent routine, it ended up being a solution only for emergency situations. One man’s reason is another’s unreason. There has to be something more than simply hair removal in a visit to a beauty parlour. Had it not been so then cold wax strip of Veet would have become a blockbuster success. Waxing and hence a visit to a parlour is rooted in the psycho-social reality of women. A visit to a parlour apparently involves planning, taking time off, and undergoing the pain, yet the shift to creams is not easy to achieve. There is something more, highlights Rajneesh: A beauty parlour is not simply a functional space. It is cherished for its own psychological and social significance. Women do not simply visit for waxing rather their visit is combined with other beauty routines like eye brow shaping, pedicure and manicure etc.. Besides these „reasons why? there are other implicit needs which parlours satisfy. Parlours are pampering places. The beauty routines performed on customers by the staff creates an uneven power equation where the women assume power over the server. It gives a great feeling. Parlours are also exclusive meeting places with friends; the interactions with staff evolve from a professional relationship to a personal relationship. Here people can freely gossip, exchange ideas and learn beauty tips. Beauty parlours are not only direct competitors to Veet but also bad ones. In order to protect their market and perpetuate dependence, parlours are also myth generating places. Customers hold parlour staff as knowledgeable and expert. Directly or indirectly a bad word about creams is spread such as creams are harsh chemicals and therefore the skin can get damaged, usage of creams leaves dark spot and creams remove hair from surface without taking them off the roots. This has been obstructing the brand’s growth, Sandeep feels: Veet comes in different sizes. The international 100 gm which sell the most in western countries does not move that fast here. Veet also comes in a 60 gm pack, which is about 25% contribution. A small pack of 25 gm was launched to facilitate trials. But this variant went on to become the 9 largest seller. The sale of smaller pack implies that first of all people do not use cream for beauty depilation (arms and legs) because it requires larger quantity. Secondly this pack too is kept to meet unexpected emergency situations. Getting people to use Veet for beauty depilation is an important marketing challenge. New Knitting All through Veet has been guided by the understanding that for customers ultimately hair removal is not an end itself. Customer ultimately wants to look and feel beautiful and to be attractive to others. Accordingly brand’s communication strategically focused on benefits such as smooth skin and beauty and kept the hair removal in the background. Quite unlike other brands in the category which rallied the idea of hair removal and ease or product functionality, Veet built its equity based on emotions (‘confidence that comes with smoothness’). The ad execution typically followed a concept very similar to beauty brands use celebrities or attractive model as emotion triggers. It is in this context Katrina Kaif who epitomizes success, beauty and sensuality, played a significant role. Veet’s strategy combining an innovative superior product with excitement and glamour of a beauty brand paid off very well. Leadership surely is satisfying but this can’t be everything. Explains Rajneesh: There have been many instances when a successful brand went on to become a mega brand by crossing over its existing product boundary. For instance, Dettol evolved from being solely an antiseptic lotion brand. It has become a dominant health and hygiene brand and accordingly apart from antiseptic lotion it enjoys a wider range of products in its fold such as bathing bar, talc, shaving cream and hand wash. On almost similar lines, one of the bathing bar brands, which for a long period of time was exclusively sold for its „1/4 moisturizing cream? has gone on to become a much bigger brand. The brand now sells shampoo, lotions and creams along with its original product ,a bathing bar. The brand essence of „1/4 moisturizing cream? was reinterpreted as „less damage or damage free? to support products in other categories. One option for Veet is to be content with its leadership and stick to its knitting and build volumes within this space. Second is to make a transition to becoming a bigger beauty brand or find a new knitting. Does Veet have a legitimate right to do so? Examples are illustrative. A lot can be learnt from examples but blindly following the success model of others is full of risks. But then there are many good examples in the industry which show how some brands move on with time by not just withstanding the challenges unleashed by change, but rather by proactively converting these into business opportunity (see exhibit 5). Within the hair removal market, Veet is marketed in different variants both in terms of sizes (25, 60, and 100 gm) and types to suit application and skin type (normal, dry, skin and suprem essence). Same is the case for its wax strips. These are marketed in three variants-for normal, dry and sensitive skin. This strategy to extract volume by market penetration has contributed to Veet’s leadership in the hair removal market. It is a critical time for the brand. It probably is a time for the brand to make a transition. Its equity could be leveraged to build business in other categories. This is only possible if the customers find the brand relevant in the beauty space. The body routine includes primarily four care areas: face, body, fragrance, and bath (exhibit 6). There are a number of brands worth emulating, points out Sandeep: 10 Brands like Ponds, Vaseline and Dove are particularly instructive. Pond? s earlier was cold cream, Vaseline was known exclusively as petroleum jelly and Dove was a bathing bar. Consider now, all of these brands have made a very successful transition into becoming multiproduct brands. The time probably has arrived for us to explore new pastures for Veet by transforming it into a beauty brand. Optimism is fine, but wrong moves sometimes can backfire and erode the equity of a primary brand. We certainly do not want the brand to make a blind move. For Veet to succeed in new product categories the brand must add a relevant and differentiating dimension. In this context Veet has cultivated equity based on ‘smooth skin benefit’ supported by aspiration and attraction created by its celebrity endorser. The following statements summarize customers’ feelings towards the brand: â€Å"Veet makes our skin feel smooth after using it†; â€Å"Katrina fits the brand as we all want our skin to be like hers†; â€Å"Veet has better fragrance as compared to other players† ; â€Å" I generally don? t require to apply cream afterwards, it has some moisturizing lotion†; â€Å"Veet is an international brand† ; and â€Å"It? less painful than waxing and less risky than using razor. It doesn? t make our hair hard† On the whole the brand comes across as sophisticated, premium and international. Endorsement by Katrina Kaif has contributed to the creation of brand’s personality as glamorous, stylish, and sophisticated. The values associated with the brand are: good fragrance works in three minutes, easy to use, and leaves the skin smooth. Optimism and Caution Veet enjoys a clear functional advantage over its rival brands in its home category of hair removers. It also enjoys equity based on non-functional aspects. The Exhibit 7 provides a critical look at the brand. Veet’s functional value delivery runs common across competitive brands except that its fragrance makes it different. The associations such as ‘international’ and ‘sophisticated’ are relevant for a select set of customers which makes its appeal limited to a premium niche. Other customers may find it difficult to relate with the brand. The glamour and sex appeal added by its endorser may be perceived as superficial in the absence of credible credentials as a beauty brand. Exhibit 8 shows the imagery associated with the brand. The brand conjures images of confidence, carefree, glowing, glamorous, and smooth and supple skin. Do these associations make the brand ready to take a plunge into the beauty space? These associations do create lure and temptations but this is insufficient. The brand must offer some differentiated value to customers to create pull. Since its launch, Veet has managed to establish its credibility in the hair removal space with ‘smooth skin’ benefit. The growth trajectory for the brand can take three forms: first, extending the core range of hair removal product by launching different hair removal products and moving up to premium formats (product centric). This has already been done. Second, the brand can move into new product categories beyond its core product domain by directly stretching on the core proposition of ‘smooth skin’ (benefit centric) and retaining the association of hair removal. Third, this is an indirect path to grow the brand. This would involve exploring brand growth avenues by extending the brand into beauty category. This can only be achieved when the brand connections are based on non-product or abstract considerations like ‘smoothness and beauty’ (see exhibit 9). 11 Personal care consists of a number of routines. These include caring for the face, hand, hair, and skin (see exhibit 10). The overall depilatory market is limited to a small portion of the total personal care market. Sticking to the depilatory market severely limits by its size and growth prospects. Veet can grow if it is able to branch into other underleveraged segments of the personal care market. The feeling that runs through the team behind the brand is that of optimism and caution. Both marketing manager and brand manager at Reckitt Benckiser agree: There is an opportunity for transforming Veet into a „beauty brand?. But this is not a cake walk either. Specifically we need a road map with a complete milestone plan for the next five years for making Veet a beauty brand. There are very specific issues which need to be addressed: first of all what needs to be done to move Veet? s equity from being a „hair removal brand with some smooth skin connect? to a „true beauty brand ?. Second, the new segments in which Veet can enter in the personal care space. Third, what new products with relevant product differentiators could be launched in new segments? And finally, what specific initiatives must be undertaken so that this transition is smoothly achieved? It has been a long time since anything like this has been initiated. Everyone agrees on the point that there is an opportunity waiting to be exploited by Veet but at the same time doubts also cloud thinking. Global marketing head of Reckitt Benckiser who is expected to arrive in India for a review meeting has posted the following concerns: Veet has all along been a depilatory brand known to provide „smooth skin? benefit, how is the brand going to be seen by customers in other categories? There are strongly entrenched players in the beauty market. What blueprint does Veet have to succeed against these giants in the beauty space? What differentiating value would Veet bring to beauty customers in order to push the purchase trigger? Success in hair removal market does impose and create a baggage on the brand which may hinder its smooth transition to beauty category. What tactical maneuvering would this require? And above all it is very critical to choose the right category and right now it is unclear as to what categories are more suitable than the others. Apart from the above concerns, it is important to spell out what the brand should do to exploit its equity in the interim period before new products are launched. How should the brand build further on its beauty appeal and take it to a higher level so that later the brand is not seen with skepticism in the beauty category? Apart from the transitioning issue, right now what can be done to make Veet even a bigger brand in its home turf of hair removal?

6

6 Introduction Some of the most interesting aspects of child development are the biosocial, cognitive and psychological development.Reading these aspects can be interesting, especially if you have a child who is still developing. In order to understand these aspects fully, scientists have come up with numerous theories to explain the development stages right from birth to adulthood.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on 6-year-old childs biosocial, cognitive and psychosocial development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although some people have widely criticized some of the theories, the truth of the matter is they address the various development stages we take the general based model to address the biosocial, cognitive, and psychological development of a six-year-old child. In trying to address these three paramount issues, the paper takes note of the extensive variations in what very many child development experts con sider as â€Å"normal†. Some of the factors behind child development include family, cognitive, educational, and genetic. Depending on the suitability of these factors, children will reach certain stages at different times. However, this paper discusses development stages of a normal six-year-old child. This is simply because every child is unique and therefore, the development stages can vary with time and other factors (Rollercoaster, 2012, p.1). Six-year-old child In very many developed countries, six-year-old kids are conversant with school and kindergarten related activities. In other words, a child develops aggression towards independence in this year. However, the idea to separate from their parents is not something that they are in apposition to do no matter how independent they want to be. These kids are taking steps towards discovering the world they found themselves in some years ago. The truth of the matter is that not all six-year-old children share similar abili ties and development traits. They can actually vary form one child to another due to their uniqueness. At this age, the kids have different preferences, experiences, and each one of them is capable of things in certain ways. This is the reason why their abilities are not the same. Although each kid is unique, we assume a general milestone in addressing the similarities in the development stages of all six-year-old kids (Ruben, Fein Vandenberg, 1983, pp. 690-698). As seen above, one of the most significant things to note about six-year-old kids id their increased aggression towards routines and independence. This does not necessarily mean that they want to leave their parents and become independent. In most cases, these kids spend most of their time in school, and away from their parents. In school, these kids participate in various activities, sometimes on their own. Sometimes, they can form groups and play together, or attend parties of their friends. Six-year-old kids also experi ence physical development.Advertising Looking for case study on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, the motor skills and the coordination are likely to develop as compared to the rest. Additionally, this is the age when most children develop athletic abilities. You will find many of them playing or running around. The growth rate will vary form one child to another, and that is the main reason why their heights will vary to a certain extent. Experts also argue that six-year-old children always feel insecure when they are far away from the parents or their homes. They therefore crave for relieve and security either at home or from their parents. Other theories also depict that six-year-old children tend to experience an incredible learning augmentation once they enter kindergarten and start handling intricate materials. This is the period they start learning how to read, and some basic math, art, science and history solving skills will start develop (Higgins Parsons, 1983, pp.15-66). Biosocial development The biosocial development of a six-year-old child is also active at this particular age. In most cases, the child starts to develop interaction and other social skills. Friends It is quite amusing to note that these kids tend to emphasis relationships with people outside their homes, for example, teachers and pupils. Even as their aggression towards independence continues, these kids also tend to focus in other areas like forming very many fiends comprising of peers, teachers, and maybe other parents. As time goes by, they find that social interactions with the peers, friends or other people outside the family are complex. Nevertheless, this does not stop them from interacting, as they become increasingly aware on what to do with such friendships. Another positive thing to note about these kids is that at this age, they understand rules better, and majority of them want t o make sure that their friends follow the rules. For instance, if they are playing, they aggravate for organized games, which are devoid of controversy. You will find them forming teams to play each other a soccer match. Gender is also important here. Those of the same gender would always want to play together, and one kid would choose another as the â€Å"best friend†. However, it is imperative for parents to watch the biosocial developments of the six-year-old child lest they develop abnormal behaviors such as hounding, cliques, and banishing others. Otherwise, this is the age when a kid navigates from one relationship to another hoping to find security and comfort (Ruben, Fein Vandenberg, 1983, pp. 702-734). Morals and rules At six years of age, a child becomes increasingly aware of what is right and wrong. You will find many of them reporting or even summoning those who are not doing the right thing. At this age, break-ups among close friends are so common, but the goodn ess is they do not last for long, and you will find them becoming friends almost immediately.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on 6-year-old childs biosocial, cognitive and psychosocial development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Giving, Sharing and Empathy Having acquired a good number of friends and now playing together, six-year-old kids always like sharing some of the things they own for example, snacks and toys. The truth of the matter is that there is rivalry and scuffling towards picking the best-looking toy or taking many snacks, but as we have seen above, they forget their differences easily. In fact, they can work out their conflicts without the involvement of a teacher or a parent. Perhaps one major thing to note about six-year-old kids is that they are too egotistical, and therefore they need tender support for them to learn the other side of life (Parten, 1932, pp. 243-269). Cognitive development As w e have seen above, six-year-old children have developed learning skills and therefore they are now reedy to enter school. At this age, they could be in kindergarten or in a nursery school. In school, they find a new world that is much different from that in their homes. Story telling, allotment, practical activities, and designing become so common, even as they embark on a journey of discovering what is in the books. They are now ready to learn new skills such as decoding words due to the developed phonemic awareness. Their attention span begins to lengthen, and they become familiar with intricate projects and assignments assigned to them both at schools and home (Parkhurst Asher, 1992, pp. 231-241). Reading and Writing This is the right age when children start learning how to read. In some cases, majority of the children of this age even begin to read on their own. Amazingly, some of them can even begin to write short stories (one paragraph) about their family, friends, or vacatio ns. They are able to identify some words and with time, they break their sound. Since they are still developing cognitively, with time, they become conversant with many vocabularies, and they can spell some words correctly. Children of this age can also identify punctuation marks, and apply capitalization in the sentences they construct. They also like reading simple stories about animals and monsters. Notably, after reading the story, they can re-tell it. Numbers and Math Six-year-old kids can count numbers much easier than they were in a year or two ago. Even as their cognitive skills increase, they will start mastering even higher numbers. Using sticks or other materials, they can add and subtract numbers in a given problem. They enjoy solving puzzles as well (Hagen, (1972, pp.66-78).Advertising Looking for case study on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Concepts Six-year-old kids are good in mastering concepts. For example, they can read the time, and tell all days of the week. By this age, they can say more about the world, name some towns, and even state the day’s weather conditions. We can say that at this age, they are able to differentiate between real and imaginary things. Psychological Development Six-year-old children are also developing psychologically. However, this type of development is in most cases characterized by contradictions. For instance, although they want to be independent, they also feel insecure and would always want to be at home with their parents. Emotional Awareness At this age, this kids experience emotions. Although they are a bit conversant on what to say, they are able to read the emotions of other people. They also remain careful in uttering some critical words so that they do not offend others. Confidence and Insecurity Since they are involved in various activities both at home and school, t hey always crave for recognition and praise. In a way, this boosts their confidence. Parents should also be instrumental in teaching them the lines of confidence. When they feel insecure, they should be encouraged, and it is paramount to mention that these kids dislike criticisms and other negative admonishments. All they need is reaffirming assurance and understanding on the part of friends and parents. Inflexibility and Preferences Six-year-old kids always prefer to do things according to their way. If this does not happen, then they feel dejected. To them some things are good and some are bad. However, parents can educate them on what is good and bad (Rollercoaster, 2012, p.1). Privacy At six years of age, children crave for some form of privacy. For instance, when they are dressing, they hide and they do not want anybody to see them. They also discourage the idea of bathing in front of their parents as well. Astonishingly, these children are also curious, as they want to discove r their gender and sex. They may also start questioning their parents the origin of babies. Reference List Hagen, J. W. (1972). Strategies for remembering. New York: Academic Press. Higgins, E.T. Parsons, J.E. (1983). Social cognition and the social life of the child:  Stages as sub-cultures. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Parkhurst, J.T. Asher, S.R. (1992).Peer rejection in middle school: Subgroup differences in behavior, loneliness, and interpersonal concerns. Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 231–241. Parten, M. (1932). Social participation among preschool children.  Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27, 243–269. Rollercoaster. (2012). Stages of Development. Web. Ruben, K. H., Fein, G. G., Vandenberg, B. (1983). Socialization, personality, and  social development. (4th ed.). New York: Wiley and Sons.

The words heal Essay Example

The words heal Essay Example The words heal Essay The words heal Essay 1991). And He closed the book, gave it back to the attendant and sat down; and the eyes of all in the synagogue were fixed on Him. And He began to say to them, Today this Scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing (Luke 4:18-21). Luke includes all of the healing events in Mark except Mark 6:45-8:26. The healing ministry of Jesus points to the arrival of the kingdom of God as promised in the Old Testament. Christ healed men not only of bodily diseases but also of demon possession. With the coming of Christ the Satanic powers were subject to His power and spoken word. They glimpse the splendour of Christ the King as He casts out demons. Here is evidence the kingdom has come (Clowes et al, 1817). Jesus trained His disciples, empowered them and sent them out to minister to the needy. His disciples were empowered with Holy Spirit and they went into the cities and towns and proclaim the love of God to the sick, poor and needy. Encourage people to live 3 good and healthy lifestyles in order to keep their health. They also teach and also heal the sick in the name of the God. Without fear of their lives they often go into the foreign countries and do ministerial work. They often adapted to the new environment by adopting their cultures, beliefs and values. By doing so they get acquainted with people concern hence provide better service to them. The Gospel of John has only four examples of Jesus healing ministry even though John was with Jesus during the three year ministry. Jesus healed the royal officials sick son at Capernaum, the cripple who had been helpless for 38 years, the man blind from birth, and  rising of Lazarus from the dead. These miracles were attesting signs pointing to Jesus as the Son of God. (Bosworth, et al, 1973). Therefore many other signs Jesus also performed in the presence of the disciples, which are not written in this book; but these have been written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; and that believing you may have life in His name (John 20:30-31). The healing ministry was a ministry of proclamation of the kingdom of God. The kingdom had arrived with the coming of the King. When Christ returns we will see the consummation of the kingdom of God. There will be the manifestation of the glory of the King and His reign. The healing ministry of Jesus is simply the outworking of His majesty and power. In Matthew 8:16-17, quoting Isaiah 53:4 we see the Suffering Servant of the LORD is fulfilling the Old Testament prophecies by His healing miracles. The healings give evidence that He is the Anointed of the LORD. This is a necessary element of His messianic work. This is why He has the authority to heal on the Sabbath (Borg, Marcus and Wright. 1999). 4 What Jesus began to do in His first coming He continues to do through His Body, the church (Acts 1:1-8). This is the work of the Holy Spirit in the Body. The main emphasis of Acts is on proclamation. The disciples of Jesus went about doing what Jesus was doing by proclaiming the good news of Jesus and calling men to put their faith in the risen Christ. People were healed in the name of Jesus. The apostles Peter and John healed a poor lame beggar. But when Peter saw this, he replied to the people, Men of Israel, why are you amazed at this, or why do you gaze at us, as if by our own power or piety we had made him walk? (Borg et al, 1999). The God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, the God of our fathers, has glorified His servant  Jesus, the one whom you delivered and disowned in the presence of Pilate, when he had decided to release Him. But you disowned the Holy and Righteous One and asked for a murderer to be granted to you, but put to death the Prince of life, the one whom God raised from the dead, and a fact to which we are witnesses. And on the basis of faith in His name, it is the name of Jesus which has strengthened this man whom you see and know; and the faith which comes through Him has given him this perfect health in the presence of you all (Acts 3:12-16). This is the thrust of the healing done by the apostles in Acts. The stress is upon the  resurrection of Jesus Christ. The risen Christ is doing these things (Acts of the Apostles 1911). The authorities could not silence the apostles. They wouldnt shut up talking about the resurrection of Jesus Christ. And now, Lord, take note of their threats, and grant that Your bond-servants may speak Your word with all confidence, while You extend Your hand to heal, and signs and wonders take place through the name of Your holy servant Jesus (Acts 4:29- 30). Peter healed Aeneas and raised Tabitha from the dead. Philip, the lay evangelist went about preaching the gospel and healing the sick and the unclean spirits. Remember, he was one of the first deacons in Acts 6. The apostle Paul went about preaching and establishing 5 new churches, healed the sick, cast out demons, and raised Eutychus from dead after he went to sleep and fell out a window and died during Pauls sermon. I think it is important to note that Paul says very little about healings in his letters (Acts of the Apostles 1911). In 1 Corinthians 12:9, 28 Paul wrote about the gift of healing. The word healing, literally healings (plural) can refer to various healings such as emotional as well as physical ailments by natural as well as miraculous means. The context determines the interpretation. The context of this passage teaches that not every believer is given all these gifts, and that God is sovereign in His distribution of gifts for the edification of the body (Andrew et al , 1982). The Bible reveals that God not only advocates health, but He actually abhors or hates sickness. Leviticus 21 clearly reveals that God would not allow sickness in His presence, which in those days was in the temple. Now, in New Testament times, our bodies are His temple. According to 1 Corinthians 3:16: â€Å"Don’t you know that you yourselves are God’s  temple and that God’s Spirit lives in you? † If you are sick, the fact that God hates sickness does not mean that you are unworthy or that He hates you. He just hates the sickness that you have, because it is not from Him It is His perfect will to heal you and for you to be in health (3 John 2) (Bosworth et al , 1973). In Old Testament passages such as Deuteronomy chapter 28 where it appears that God is putting sickness on people, Jim Glennon (1980) explains that the nuance of the Hebrew wording shows that because of the people’s disobedience, the text really means that God is â€Å"caused to allow† the sicknesses. Our behaviour can â€Å"cause him to allow† sickness to come upon us, even though it is not His perfect will. For example, suffering from AIDS is not his will, but if man indulges in promiscuous behaviour by his own free will, which God will not 6 violate, God is caused to allow AIDS. Man has brought it upon himself, as did the ancient Israelites. Rebellion against God and His commands can cause him to remove his protective shield over us, such as promised in Psalm 91 and elsewhere, and allow the natural consequences. However, do not despair if you have a disease caused by sin. If you confess your sin to God, His grace and mercy can still provide your forgiveness and healing. Other reasons for sickness are: (1) Some people abuse their bodies, using harmful substances, or not allowing enough rest; (2) excessive stress; and (3) some people do not provide the body with nutritious food, often substituting junk or processed food. Much modern commercial food is deficient in nutrients and contains chemical additives, such as hormones and antibiotics in excessive exposure to meat and dairy products, and  environmental pollutants (Counsels on Health, 1923. ) Also, many people violate God’s food guidelines in the Bible and still expect to remain healthy. Examples are in Leviticus chapter 11, no longer a legal requirement but still the wisdom of God. Paul said, Everything is permissible but not everything is beneficial (1 Corinthians 10:23). God’s law of sowing and reaping always applies, but His grace transcends our past mistakes. Allow God to show you any area that needs attention. When sick people came to Jesus and asked to be healed, He did not reject them nor refer them to the doctors. He did not ask them to make an appointment with Luke because he is a doctor. God uses doctors, who can be especially helpful with things like fractures and wounds. Those in healing ministries usually encourage the sick not to ignore proper medical attention, nor to stop their medications, possibly to protect themselves against lawsuits, but also maybe wisdom in many cases. It is not necessarily a lack of faith to see a doctor, and your healing will be a witness to the doctor of God’s power (The Ministry of Healing, 1905). 7 However, be careful, because doctors’ three main methods slash, burn and poison  often do more harm than good: (1) slash (surgery, often dangerous and mutilating), (2) burn (radiation, with bad side effects) and (3) poison (drugs, most all with bad side effects that you may not be told about). If Jesus tarries, I believe someday current medical practices will be considered primitive and outrageous. More people are refusing these highly invasive and potentially harmful medical procedures and are opting to trust God, and perhaps also using natural alternatives. Even many medical doctors have become disenchanted with the failures of their profession and are turning to alternative (complimentary) medicine. Studies show that doctor and healthcare mistakes are the third leading cause of death in the world, whereas God has never made a mistake. (Jim Glennon ,1980). To conclude, Jesus set a foundation for all of us to follow in our Christian journey. He healed the sick, feed the hungry, and teach the people on how to care for themselves. During his ministry on earth, he had endured many challenges in terms of health. People often coming with all sorts of problem with the hope that he will heal them. He performed miracles and also raised death and gave them the second chance to live. As future nurse of this  country, the challenge is whether we will go and minister to the sick, lame and broken hearted like Jesus did or we will hide our identity as Christ chosen generation to work in his field. 8 Reference Pilch, John J, (1991). Sickness and Healing in Luke’s Acts: The social world of Luke’s Acts. Peabody MA: Hendricksons Publishers. The Acts of the Apostles. (1911). Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press Publishing Association, Borg, Marcus J. , and N. T. Wright. (1999). The Healing of Jesus: Two Visions. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Counsels on Health. (1923. ) Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press Publishing Association,  Davies, Stevan L. , (1995). Jesus the Healer: Possession, Trance and the Origins of Christianity. New York: Continuum Publishing Company. The Ministry of Healing. (1905). Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press Publishing Association, F. F. Bosworth, Fleming H. Revell. , (1973). Christ the Healer. Grand Rapids, MI) The Holy Bible. (1985) . Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press Publishing Association Andrew M and Whitaker H, (1982, Divine Healing. New Kinsington: PA. Jim Glennon (1980). Your Healing is Within You. South Plainfield, NJ: Bridge Publishing. Clowes S and John H, (1817). The Miracles of Jesus Christ. Manchester, UK: J. Gleave.

The Life of King Tutankhamun Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Life of King Tutankhamun - Essay Example Little is known of King Tut beyond his name, age, and the fact that he was a pharaoh king, but there is endless speculation surrounding him. Archaeologists have historically divided into opposing factions, each side failing to utilize hard evidence to support their claims for validity. There are differing opinions on his parentage, claim to the throne, religious beliefs, and most notably - the manner of his death. A careful examination of the clues and research leads to some, not all of the answers. On November 25, 1922 Howard Carter, Egyptologist and Lord Carnarvon accompanied by his daughter, Lady Evelyn Herbert were the first to glimpse into the tomb emblazoned with the name Nebkheprure-Tutankhamen3. After financing a long and expensive archeological dig, it certainly must have been with much relief that Lord Carnarvon breathed in the stale air of the most complete Pharaoh's tomb ever to be discovered. It was a ground-breaking discovery that owed much to the obscurity of King Tut's life. His tomb, once sealed was forgotten, placed beneath Ramses VI's tomb in an obscure corner of the Valley of the Kings4. At one time, workmen from the XX dynasty were housed in the shifting sands about King Tut's tomb5 proving that his existence was all but wiped away. Slightly more obscure than the location of his final resting p... At one time, workmen from the XX dynasty were housed in the shifting sands about King Tut's tomb5 proving that his existence was all but wiped away. Slightly more obscure than the location of his final resting place is the origin of Tutankhamen himself. The great uncertainties surrounding Tutankhamen are his obscure parentage and the manner of his death. His parentage is never clearly agreed upon because it is never clearly stated. King Tut's birth can be traced to the years between 34 and 35 of Amenophis III's reign6 and dating of the mummified remains assist in knowing how old King Tut was when he died7. This knowledge is useful in attempting to discover the identity of his parents. At the time of the reign of his predecessor Akhenaten, who was the leader of a great religious usurping records on the princes were not kept. Only the princesses were acknowledged in accordance with the beliefs of Aten, the chosen god of Akhenaten.8 This belief system in effect, clouds any written records that might have survived with Tutankhamen's treasure. Two artifacts did survive with his treasure, which serve as an obvious nudge in the correct direction of his parental lineage. "There was in the child king's tomb a small golden statuette showing Amenophis III crouching in the attitude of the solar child, as if to show his oneness with the son in whose flesh he would be reborn. This statuette, wrapped in linen and laid in a tiny coffin, was found beside a lock of Queen Tiye's hair touchingly enclosed like a mummy in its own little sarcophagus"9. Also, an alabaster pitcher with the couple's name is found elsewhere in the tomb along with various other artifacts from various members of the royal family who appear to be

Application to Use Human Research Subjects Essay

Application to Use Human Research Subjects - Essay Example   Name and Title Dept. Phone, E-mail address 3. Non-key personnel:   Name and Title Dept. Phone, E-mail address 7. Consultants:   Name and Title Dept. Phone, E-mail address 8. The principal investigator agrees to carry out the proposed project as stated in the application and to promptly report to the Human Subjects Committee any proposed changes and/or unanticipated problems involving risks to subjects or others participating in approved project in accordance with the Liberty Way and the Confidentiality Statement. The principal investigator has access to copies of 45 CFR 46 and the Belmont Report. The principal investigator agrees to inform the Human Subjects Committee and complete all necessary reports should the principal investigator terminate association with the University. Additionally s/he agrees to maintain records and keep informed consent documents for three years after completion of the project even if the principal investigator terminates association with the University. ___________________________________ _________________________________________ Principal Investigator Signature Date ___________________________________ _________________________________________ Faculty Sponsor (If applicable) Date Submit the original request to: Liberty University Institutional Review Board, CN Suite 1582, 1971 University Blvd., Lynchburg, VA 24502. Submit also via email to irb@liberty.edu APPLICATION TO USE HUMAN RESEARCH SUBJECTS 10. This project will be conducted at the following location(s): (please indicate city & state)  Liberty University Campus X Other (Specify): Charlottesville High School: Charlottesville, Virginia 11. This project will involve the following subject types: (check-mark types to be studied) X Normal Volunteers (Age 18-65)  Subjects Incapable Of Giving Consent  In Patients  Prisoners Or Institutionalized Individuals  Out Patients X Minors (Under Age 18)  Patient Controls  Over Age 65  Fetuses  University Students (PSYC De pt. subject pool __)  Cognitively Disabled  Other Potentially Elevated Risk Populations______  Physically Disabled __________________________________________  Pregnant Women Subjects Incapable of Giving Consent. 12. Do you intend to use LU students, staff or faculty as participants in your study? If you do not intend to use LU participants in your study, please check â€Å"no† and proceed directly to item 13. YES  NO X If â€Å"Yes†, please list the department and/or classes you hope to enlist and the number of participants you would like to enroll.  In order to process your request to use LU subjects, we must ensure that you have contacted the appropriate department and gained permission to collect data from them. Signature of Department Chair: ___________________________________ ____________________________ Department Chair Signature(s) Date 13. Estimated number of subjects to be enrolled in this protocol: ___15-25____________ 14. Does this project call for: ( check-mark all that apply to this study) X Use of Voice, Video, Digital, or Image Recordings?  Subject Compensation? Patients $ Volunteers $ Participant Payment Disclosure Form  Advertising For Subjects?  More Than Minimal Risk?  More Than Minimal Psychological Stress?  Alcohol Consumption? X Confidential Material (questionnaires, photos, etc.)?  Waiver of Informed Consent?  Extra Costs To The Subjects (tests, hospitalization, etc.)?  VO2 Max Exercise?

Life of Pi Animals Essay Example for Free

Life of Pi Animals Essay Acting and speaking before THINKING, this goes back to a humans’ primitive stage. We are all animals, in the sense that we are mammals. Manifested through our psyche or personality, each animal has a different representation. From personality traits, behavior or even symbolism, animals have the ability to portray these features in humans. In Yann Martel’s Life of Pi, four distinct animals are manifested in the main character’s (Pi Patel)spirit. These four animals a zebra, which symbolizes the struggle to survive and docility, the orangutan – a nurturing mother personality, the hyena for desperation and evil, then lastly the tiger, Richard Parker which represents perseverance and companionship. When one visits the zoo, the most submissive creature there to see is the zebra. Marked with bold black and white stripes to show endurance, the zebra is still indecisive and unassertive. Relating back to Pi Patel, even from the beginning of the novel he cannot make up his mind about which religion to follow. This shows when his indetermination leads him from being a Muslim, to Hinduism, to Christianity. Also, as the hyena attacks the zebra for food, the animal strives to defend himself by thrashing about the boat. Severely wounded and painfully struggling to fight the battle, zebras determination to stay alive and survive the attack from the hyena. This is also a small wake up call to Pi who is also growing weak day in and day out while a hungry Bengal tiger sleeps only a few feet away. However the need to survive and the life of force is a character trait that the zebra and Pi Patel have in common, not to mention uncertainty.

Definition Of Motivation Business Essay

Definition Of Motivation Business Essay One of the oldest, and most difficult, areas in psychology is the fundamental problem of why people are motivated to do anything at all, and if they do something, why that and not something else. The issue is really two fold; the nature of the driving force (where it comes from: what are its properties) and the direction and maintenance of the drive (what affects does it have on individual behavior). For Westwood (1992:288), motivation, as a concept, has certain specific features: Motivation is an internal state experienced by the individual. Whilst external factors including other people, can affect a persons motivational state, it develops within the individual and is unique to that individual. The individual experiences a motivational state in a way that gives rise to a desire, intention and pressure to act. Motivation has an element of choice, intention or willingness. That is, the individual experiencing a state of arousal (externally or internally generated), responds by choosing to act in a way and at a level of intensity that they determine. Action and performance are a function, at least in part, of motivation. It is therefore important in our ability to predict and understand actions and performance. Motivation is multi-faceted. It is a complex process with several elements and the possibility of multiple determinants, options and outcomes. Individuals differ in terms of their motivational state and the factors that affect it. Furthermore, the motivational state of an individual is variable; it is different across time and across situations. (John Arnold et al, 1995) There are two types of motivation as originally identified by Hertzberg et al (1957): Intrinsic motivation-The self generated factors that influence people to behave in a particular direction. These factors include responsibility, autonomy (freedom to act), scope to use and develop skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work and opportunities for advancement. Extrinsic motivation-what is done to or for people to motivate them. This includes rewards, such as increased pay, praise, or promotion, and punishments, such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticisms. 2.2 The process of motivation Motivating other people is about getting them to move in the direction you want them to go in order to achieve a result. Motivating yourself is about setting the direction independently and then taking a course of action, which will ensure that you get there. Motivation can be described as goal -directed behavior. People are motivated when they expect that a course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward-one that satisfies their needs. But managers still have a major part to play in using their motivating skills to get people to give of their best, and to make good use of motivational processes provided by the organization. To do this it is necessary to understand the process of motivation-how it works and the different types of motivations that exist. A need -related model of the process of motivation is shown in the figure below. This suggests that motivation is initiated by the conscious or unconscious recognition of unsatisfied needs. These nee ds create wants, which are desires to achieve or obtain something. Goals are then established which is believed will satisfy these needs and wants and a behaviour pathway is selected which is expected will achieve the goal. If the goal is achieved, the need will be satisfied and the behaviour is likely to be repeated, the next time a similar need emerges. If the goal is not achieved, the action is less likely to be repeated. This process of repeating successful behaviour or actions is called reinforcement or the law of effect (Hull, 1951). It has, however, been criticized by Allport (1954) as ignoring the influence of expectations and therefore constituting hedonism of the past. (Michael Armstrong, 2001: 155). Attain Goal Need Take Action Establish Goal Figure2.1: The motivation process (Source: Michael Armstrong, 2001:155). 2.3 Approaches to motivation 2.3.1 Theory X and Theory Y Douglas Mc Gregor proposed two distinct views of human beings: one basically negative, labeled theory X, and the other basically positive, labeled theory Y. Under Theory X, the 4 assumptions held by managers are: Employees inherently dislike work, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and display little ambitions. In contrast to these negative views the nature of human being, Mc Gregor listed 4 positive assumptions that he called Theory Y: Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. The average person can learn to accept, even seek responsibility. The ability to make innovative decision is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management position. Mc Gregor himself held to the being that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore, he proposed such idea as participate in decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good go up relation as approaches that would maximize an employees job motivation. Critics of the theory: Unfortunately, there is no evidence to confirm that either set of assumptions is valid or that accepting theory y assumptions and altering ones acknowledgment will lead to more motivated workers. (Stephen P. Robins, 1993: 208) 2. 3.2 Human Relation Approach The main emphasis of the classical approach was on structure and the formal organization as the basic for achieving high levels of work performance. But during the 1920s greater attention began to be given to the social factors at work and to the behaviour of people in the organization that is human relations. The major impetus to the human relations approach came with the famous Hawthorne studies at the Western Electric company in America (1924 1932). The Hawthorne Studies have been subject to criticize and to a number of different interpretation. But however, the results are regarded; the studies have important implications for organizational structures. They generated new ideas on social interaction, output restrictions and individuals within work groups. The human relations approach marked a change in emphasis away from the precision of scientific management and led to ideas on increasing productivity by humanizing the work organization with the human relations approach, recognition was given to the importance of the informal organization which will always be seen as individuals and members of a social group, with their behaviour and attitude as the key effectiveness. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992:59) 2.3.3 Scientific Management Approach The scientific management movement was pioneered by the American, Frederic W. Taylor. He saw workers who do manual work to be motivated by money, the greedy robot, and to be too stupid to develop the one best way of doing the task. The role of management was to analyze scientifically all the tasks to be done and then to design jobs to eliminate wasted time and motion. The application of scientific management resulted in significant productivity increases. However, the emphasis on specialization was to become one of the targets of critics of scientific management. They argued, that specialization was ultimately inefficient but, more importantly; it did not allow people to achieve their full potential at work. (Henry L. Tosi et al, 1994:9) Scientific management is often referred to as a machine theory model. It adopts an instrumental view of human behaviour together with the application of specialization and standard procedures of work. Workers were viewed less as isolated individuals and more as units of production to handle in much the same way as machines. The scientific study of work can lead to jobs becoming repetitive, boring and requiring little skills. The ideas behind scientific management have been largely discredited by subsequent management writers. There has been strong criticism of scientific as representing close management control over workers. By removing decisions about their work is cairned out, by division of labour, and by dictating precise stages and methods for every aspect of work performance, management could gain control of the actual process of work. The rationalization of production processes and division of labour tends to result in de-skilling of work, and thus may be a main strategy of ma nagement. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992:56) 2.4 The motivation theories 2.4.1 Content theory 2.4.1.1 Maslow theory Without doubt the best-known theory is of Maslow (1954). Maslow supposed that people have 5 types of needs that are activated in a hierarchical manner, and are then aroused in a specific order such that a lower order need must be satisfied before the next higher order- need is activated. Once need is met, the next highest need is the hierarchy is triggered and and so forth. Higher Order order of progression Self-actualisation needs Self-esteem needs Social needs Safety needs Psychological needs Lower Order Figure2.2: Maslows need hierarchy Source: A.H.Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd edition, New York: Harper Row, 1976) Psychological needs Psychological needs are the lowest-order most basic needs and refer to satisfying fundamental biological drives such as the need for food, air, water and shelter. To satisfy these positive needs, organizations must provide employees with a salary that allows them to afford adequate living conditions e.g. food and shelter. Employees need sufficient rest breaks to allow them to meet their psychological needs. Organizations may provide exercise and physical fitness facilities for their employees, because providing such facilities may also be recognized as an attempt to help employees stay healthy by gratifying their psychological needs. Safety needs Safety needs are activated only after physiological needs are met. Safety need refer to needs for a secure, predictable, habitable, non-threatening environment free from threats of either physical or psychological harm. Organizations may provide employees with life and health insurance plans, opportunity for savings, pensions, and safety equipment and secure contracts that enable work to be performed without fear and harm. Social needs Social needs are activated after both physiological and safety needs. They refer to the need to be affiliative-to have friends, to be liked, included and accepted by other people. Friends, relations and work colleagues help meet social needs, and organizations may encourage participation in social events such as office parties, sports days, competitions which provide an opportunity for meeting these needs. Many organizations spend vast sums of money on facilitate for out-of-work hours activities for their staff so that people in the same organization, but different sections or departments, may meet, chat and affiliate. Esteem needs Esteem needs refer to a persons desire to develop self-respect and to gain the approval of others. The desires to achieve success have personal prestige and are recognized by others all fall into this category. Companies may have awards, prizes or banquets to recognize distinguished achievements. Printing articles in company newsletters describing an employees success, assigning private parking spaces, and posting signs identifying the employee of the month are all examples of things that can be done to satisfy esteem. The inflation of job titles could also be seen as an organizational attempt to boost employees self-esteem. Self-actualizations needs Self-actualization needs refer to the need for self-fulfillment-the desire to become all that one is capable of being, developing ones potential and fully realizing ones abilities. By working to their maximum creative potential, employees who are self-actualised can be an extremely valuable asset to their organizations. Individuals who have become self-actualised supposedly work at their peak, and represent the most effective use of an organizations human resources. Critics of the theory: The theory has enthusiascally applied to the world of work. However, few have been able to find evidence of the five-(or two-) their system (Mitchell Nowdgill 1976), and there is precious little evidence that needs are activated in the same order. Furthermore, it is not certain how, when or why the gratification of one stimulates or activates the next highest category (John Arnold et al, 1995). 2.4.1.2 Adelfers ERG theory Growth needs Existence needs Relate dress needs Least concrete Most concrete Figure 2.3: Adelfers continuum of ERG needs. (Paul M.Muchinsky, 1993) Adelfers ERG theory is much simpler than Maslows theory, in that Adelfer specifies that there are only 3 types of needs, but that they are not necessarily activated in any specific order. Further, according to this theory any need may be activated at any time. The 3 needs specified by ERG theory are existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence needs These are material and are satisfied by environmental factors such as food, water, pay, fringe benefits, and working conditions. Relatedness needs These involve relationship with significant others, such as co-workers, superiors, subordinates, family and friends. Growth needs These involve the desire for unique personal development. They are met by developing whatever abilities and capabilities are important to the individual. Critics of the theory: ERG theory suggests that, although basic categories of need do exist, they are not exactly as specified by Maslow. The theory has not attracted as much attention as Maslow theory, but seems a reasonable modification of it. However, like Maslow theory it is potentially rather difficult to test (Furnham, 1992). 2.4.1.3 Hertzbergs two-factor theory According to the two factors theory, people have two major types of needs. The first of these Hertzberg called hygiene needs, which are influenced by the physical and psychological conditions in which people work. Hertzberg called the second set of needs motivator needs, and described them as being very similar to the higher order needs in Maslows (1954) need hierarchy theory. Hertzberg at al. (1959) claimed that different types of outcomes or rewards satisfied these two types of needs. Hygiene needs were said to be satisfied by hygiene factors or dissatisfiers, such as supervision, interpersonal relation, physical working conditions, salary, company policies and administrative practices, benefits and job security. When these factors are unfavorable, the job dissatisfaction is the result. Conversely, when hygiene factors are positive, such as when worker perceive that their pay is fair and that their working conditions are good, than barriers to job satisfaction are removed. However, the fulfillment of hygiene needs cannot by itself result in job satisfaction. Unlike hygiene needs, motivation needs are fulfilled by what Hertzberg et al. (1959) called motivator factors or satisfiers such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility and advancement. According to the theory, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are those that satisfy an individuals need for self-actualization (self-fulfillment) in their work, and it is only from the performance of their task that individuals can enjoy the reward that will reinforce their aspirations. Compared to hygiene factors, which results in a neutral state (neither satisfied nor dissatisfied) when present, positive motivator factors result in job satisfaction. Critics of the theory: Attractive though the theory is, it has little empirical support. There is no doubt attributable to the fact that various methodological errors were introduced in the early theory-testing work. These included the real possibility that all the results were the result of classic attribution errors, such that personal failure is attributed externally (to hygiene factors) and success internally (to motivator factors). Secondly, the theory testing work was nearly all done on white-collar workers (accountants and engineers) who are hardly representive of the working population. 2.4.1.4 McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory The need for achievement underlies the higher levels of Maslows hierarchy and also one of Hertzbergs motivating factors. The importance of achievement is emphasised by Mc Lellands, who has developed a theory of motivation which is noted in culture. The work of Mc Lelland is based on the concept of 3 main sets of needs and socially developed motives: The need for Affiliation The need for Power; and The need for Achievement People possess all 3 needs but the relative intensity of affiliation, power and achievement varies among individuals and different occupations. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992: 206) Those most interested in power seeks positions of control and influence, those for whom affiliation is most important seek pleasant relationship and enjoy helping others; achievement seekers want success, fear failure, are task oriented and self-reliant. These 3 needs are not mutually exclusive. Many people are well motivated by all 3, but invariably one area is predominant. The implication of the theory in practice are that managers can identify employees who are self-motivated, those who rely more on internal incentives and those who could increase their achievement drive through training. (Shaun Tyson et al, 2000: 15) Critics of the theory: Mc Lellands theory implies an individualistic approach to the motivation of staff. The behaviour and performance of work group is as important as for individual motivation. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992:207) 2.4.2 Process theories 2.4.2.1 Equity theory Equity theories, borrowed by psychologists from economics (Adams 1965), views motivation from the perspective of the comparisons people make among themselves. It proposes that employees are motivated to maintain fair, or equitable, relationships among themselves and to change those relationships that are unfair or inequitable. Equity theory suggests that people make social comparison between themselves and others with respect to two variables-outcomes (benefits, rewards) and inputs (effort, ability). Outcomes refer to the things workers believe they and others get out of their jobs, including pay, fringe benefits or prestige. Inputs refer to the contribution employees believe they and others make to their jobs, including the amount of time worked, the amount of effort expended, the number of units produced, or the qualifications brought to the job. Not surprisingly, therefore workers may disagree about constitutes equity and inequity in the job. Equity is therefore a subjective, not objective, experience, which makes it more susceptible to being influenced by personality factors (Furnham 1992:139). Equity theory states that people compare their outcomes and inputs to those of others in the form of ratio. Specifically, they compare the ratio of their own outcomes and inputs to the ratio of other peoples outcomes and inputs, which can result in any of the 3 states: overpayment, underpayment, or equitable payment. Implication for managers: The management implications are two-fold: firstly that comparative pay and benefits between different groups, sections and levels in an organization, are a major source of motivation and demotivation; secondly, employees need to feel they are fairly dealt with -that they and their colleagues are rewarded equitably for their efforts. Critics of the theory: As one might expect, equity theory has its problems: how to deal with the concept of negative inputs; the point at which equity becomes inequity, and the belief that people prefer and value equity equality. Moreover, the theory is too individualistic. (John Arnold et al, 1995). 2.4.2.2 Reinforcement theory These theories, for there are many, specify how a history of past benefits (or punishments), or reinforcements, modify behaviour so that future benefits will be secured. The direct application of behavioral modification principles to the work situation claims to provide procedures by which human performance can be shaped and altered. At the centre of behaviour modification is the concept of reinforcement contingency: the rate of performance will increase when valued outcomes (reinforcers) are made contingent on the performance. It makes no difference to the theory what the person needs, expects, values or wants, although these factors may impact on the differential power or effect of each reward (and punishment). Furthermore, people perform certain work-related acts that are subject to reinforcement (or punishment and extinction) contingencies. People work with a certain degree of effectiveness, and when a particular behavior result in a reward (there is reinforcement contingency bet ween, say, payment and work efficiency), performance improves. Learning theorists assert that all behaviour is shaped and sustained through the action of contingent reinforcement; work-related behaviours are simply special examples of this more universal phenomenon. (Furnham, 1992). Reinforcement and learning theories are among the oldest in psychology. There has long been a debate concerning the usefulness or otherwise of punishment as a strategy. Problems such as resentment and sabotage may accompany a managers use of punishment (negative reinforcement) is usually not effective, since it suppresses rather than eliminate undesirable responses. They also noted the more quickly reinforcement is given after the response, the more effective it becomes. Implication for managers: Jablonsky and De Vries (1972) have suggested the following guidelines for applying operant conditioning as a motivating technique: Avoid using punishment as a primary means of obtaining desired performance Positively reinforce desired behaviour and ignore undesired behaviour if possible. Minimize the time-lag between response and reinforcement Apply positive reinforcement frequently on a variable ratio schedule Determine environmental factors that are considered positive and negative by individual Critics of the theory: Being very practically oriented, it is very unclear what managers should do to motivate their staff if they are followers of learning theory. Sensitively, subtly and discretely applied, it works well, but sophisticated workforce is sometimes hostile to it. (John Arnold et al, 1995). 2.4.2.3 Expectancy theory Expectancy theory asserts that people are mostly motivated to work when they expect they will be able to achieve and obtain the things they want from their jobs. Expectancy theory characterizes people as rational, logical and cognitive beings, who think about what they have to do to be rewarded and how much the reward means to them before they perform their jobs. Expectancy theory specifies that motivation is the result of 3 different types of beliefs cognitions that people have. These are known as: Expectancy- The belief that ones effort will result in performance Instrumentality The belief that ones performance will be rewarded Valence- The perceived value of the rewards to the recipient Employee may believe that a great deal of efforts will result in getting much accomplished, whereas others believe there are other occasions in which hard work will have little effects on how much gets done. It is possible that even if an employee works hard and performs at a high level, motivation may falter if that performance is not suitably rewarded by the organization-that is if the performance was not perceived as instrumental in bringing about the rewards. If behaviour is not explicitly rewarded, people are unlikely to repeat it. Furthermore, even if employees receive rewards based on their performance, they may be poorly motivated if those so-called rewards have a low valence to them. Porter and Lawler Over the years, Porter and Lawler (1968) adapted and expanded the theory. According to this model, job performance is a multiple combination of abilities and skills, effort and role perceptions. If individuals have clear role perceptions, if they possess the necessary skills and abilities, and if they are motivated to exert sufficient effort, the model suggests that they will perform well. Abilities and skills refer to both physical and psychological characteristics. Role perceptions refer to the clarity of the job description and to whether individuals know how to direct their efforts towards effectively completing the task. Those who have clear perceptions of their role perceptions apply their efforts where they will count, and perform correct behaviours. Those who have incorrect role perceptions tend to spend much of their time in unproductive efforts that do not contribute to effective job performance. Expectancy Expectancy Instrumentality Extrinsic outcome / reward Outcome / Reward Satisfaction Performance Effort Intrinsic outcome / reward Perceived equity of outcomes / rewards Job design, Organizational policies and practice Ability and traits, Role clarity organizational supports, etc Figure 2.4: Porter and Lawlers expanded expectancy model Source: Adapted from Porter and Lawler (1968) Implication for managers: Arnold et al. (1991:176) argues that, if expectancy theory were correct it would have important implications for managers wishing to ensure that employees were motivated to perform their work duties: They would need to ensure that all 3 of the following conditions were satisfied: Employees perceived that they possessed the necessary skills to do their jobs at least adequately (expectancy) Employees perceived that if they performed their jobs well, or at least adequately, they would be rewarded (instrumentality). Employees found the rewards offered for successful job performance attractive (valence). Critics of the theory: Although some specific aspects of the Expectancy theory have been supported (particularly the impact of expectancy and instrumentality on motivation), others have not (such as the contribution of valence to motivation, and the assumption that expectancy, instrumentality and valence are multiplied.) Arnold et al. (1991) note how little attention the theory pays in explaining why an individual values or does not value particular outcomes: no concept of need is involved to address this question. The theory proposes that people should ask someone how much they value something, but not bother about why they value it. (John Arnold et al, 1995) 2.4.2.4 Goal Setting Theory This approach to motivation was pioneered by Ed Loche and his associate, starting in the 1960s and continuing with increasing strength and sophistication ever since. The above figure represents goal setting theory, and shows that the characteristics of a goal and attitudes towards it are thought to be influences by incentives, self-perceptions and the manner in which goals are set. In turn, those goals characteristics and attitudes are thought to determine behavioural strategies, which lead to performance within the constraints of ability knowledge of results (also called feedback) is thought to be essential to further refinement of behavioural strategies. Goal Setting Theory Participation in goal setting (Self-perceived) ability Financial incentive Goal commitment Goal acceptance Goal difficulty Goal specification Direction Intensity Persistence Strategies Knowledge of results Ability Performance Figure 2.5 Goal Setting Theory Source: Adapted from Psychology of work Behaviour by F. Landy. Copyright  © 1989, 1985, 1980, 1976. Brooks / Cole Publishing Company, a division of International Thomson Publishing Inc. By permission of the publisher. What does research say about goal setting? Some further comments can be made on the basis of research evidence first financial incentives can indeed enhance performance. Loche et al. (1981) report that this occurs either through raising goal level, or through increasing commitment to a goal. Second, and unsurprisingly, ability also affects performance. Third, research on goal setting has been carried out in a range of context and fourth, goal setting is magnificently deal about how managers can enhance the performance of their employees. Some other research has directly investigated specific potential limitations of goal setting. Earley et al. (1989) suggested that goal setting may be harmful where a task in novel and where a considerable numbers of possible strategies are available to tackle it. It seems that when people are tackling unfamiliar and complex tasks, goal setting can induce them to pay much attention to task strategy and not enough to task performance itself. Goal setting could be criticized in its early days for being a technology rather than a theory. It successfully described how goal focus behaviour, without really addressing why or through what process goals influenced behaviour. Furthermore, goal setting, suggests that people are most motivated by difficult tasks where success is (presumably) not certain. A continuing issue in goal setting concerns participation. Locke et al. (1981) concluded that there was no evidence from published research that participation in goal setting by the person attempting to achieve the goal produced better performance than if the goal was assigned to him or her by someone else. Kanfer et al. (1994) got students to attempt a simulated air traffic control task and repeated the findings that goal setting can harm performance of unfamiliar complex tasks. But they also found that giving people time to reflect on their performance between repeated attempts at similar tasks eliminate that effect. The breaks enabled them to devote intentional resources to their strategies without having simultaneously to tackle the task itself. (John Arnold et al, 1998) 2.5 Job satisfaction and motivation Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. The concept generally ref